ISSN 0798 1015

Vol. 39 (Number 48) Year 2018. Page 12

Participation of women in the labor market in Colombia: challenges and recent trends

Participación de la mujer en el mercado laboral en Colombia: retos y tendencias recientes

FAJARDO, Eddy Johanna 1; ROMERO, Héctor 2; ÁLVAREZ, María Camila 3; VARGAS, Johana Marcela 4

Recibido: 08/06/2018 • Aprobado: 23/07/2018 • Publicado 29/11/2018

Contents

1. Introduction

2. Background

3. Methodology

4. Results

5. Conclusions

Bibliographic references

1. Introduction

Even though different alternatives have been proposed, which have sought to contribute to the achievement of gender equity in the Colombian labor market, still persist a series of paradigms, which condition the insertion of women in this market and prevent the full development of their capacities while in it. In this sense, it is essential to highlight the cultural background behind it, as a series of imposed assumptions are established, both by females and by men, and that determine to a large extent, the roles they exercise, as well as the decisions made during the course of their lives.

In this order of ideas, it should be noted that, the branches of activity analyzed, in the present work, were selected based on their final participation in the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) during the last years, which are: Financial intermediation; Commerce, repair, restaurants and hotels; Building; Transportation, storage and communications and the supply of electricity, gas and water. Likewise, it is important to recognize that in these branches some of the problems that hinder the full insertion of women within the labor force have been identified, whether in secondary or managerial positions. However, gender discrimination begins to manifest itself even from the moment women begin to make decisions about their future; being immersed, the choice of the work in which they want to play. Therefore, given that currently, gender equity is a dilemma in the global socioeconomic sphere, based on the Sustainable Development Goals set by the United Nations (UN), it is valuable to consider the patterns that historically, have influenced the future personal and professional development of females, starting from childhood to adulthood.

With regard to the methodology used during the research carried out, a descriptive longitudinal analysis was taken into account, which implies a repetitive monitoring of a specific cohort over a period of time. In the case under study, said cohort is composed of the women that make up the five branches of economic activity, mentioned above, during the period of time elapsed between 2001 and 2016. Accordingly, the characteristics of this type of analysis are: the selection of subjects, time, results or effects and inference. The analyzed data were taken from the Great Integrated Household Survey (GEIH) in the annex on the employed population by sex and branch of economic activity, of the first mobile quarter of 2017. Regarding the exposed figures, the use of the R software, evidenced the fluctuations presented by female participation in the Colombian labor market. The present study is subdivided from the following form: in the second section the background is developed. In the third section, the methodology is presented. In the fourth section, data is analyzed and the results obtained in the five selected economic activity branches are exposed. Finally, in the fifth section, the conclusions derived from the analysis executed are manifested.

Different sectors of the world academy have been talking about the damage of globalization, especially in terms of the increase in socioeconomic inequality and the very serious consequences that it has brought. However, in the second decade of this century, this disparity not only differs at the level of continents and countries, but is accentuated even more between genders (female-male), as absurd as it may seem.

However, during the last two years different assemblies have been convened around the world, in order to internationalize, gender equity. Even though it seems to be a new concept in several nations, particularly in Africa, Asia and Latin America; it is by itself a public policy that contributes in reducing poverty and deserves to be taken into consideration by all governments. As stipulated in the report on Gender equity, poverty and economic growth of the World Bank (2007).

In this sense and with special emphasis on the problems that arise within the Colombian labor market, it is possible to determine, by means of the Duncan and Duncan index and the Karmel and MacLachlan index (Salamanca, 2016) gender segregation in the economic sectors of the country and its thirteen metropolitan areas during the period between 2001 and 2015. Also, during this period, the problems of discrimination faced by the female gender by social and cultural factors within cities are discovered. Undoubtedly, these are determinants in the salaries that women receive from the employer and the inferior position that the latter assigns compared to men. Nonetheless, it is important to mention that gender inequality at work influences low productivity levels in both microeconomic and macroeconomic aspects.

Nevertheless, it is necessary to emphasize from this point that, unlike females, men are recognized since childhood for being insightful, agile and methodical when it comes to behaving; evidencing in this way, the type of choices that come to do when choosing a career professional or in general, any work with which they may be immersed in the labor market. (Rico, Rodríguez and Alonso, 2000). In this way, it can be affirmed that for the national case even when a feminization of higher education is being presented, that is to say, that is, women are preparing more in academic terms with respect to men, and this situation is not extrapolated in the same measure in the labor market. Consequently, there is still a lag in the face of the number of women who hold large positions in both the public and private spheres, the salaries they receive and the degree of immersion they face within that market (Olarte, 2005).

In line with this, in Colombia there has been a steady decline in gender discrimination. In different sectors of the economy there are still determining variables such as education, marital status and fertility, which have an impact on the reasons why female participation faces enigmas within the aforementioned market; being these variables, the main circumstances so that females do not manage to be easily inserted. In this order of ideas, marital status and educational level represent a greater incidence in participation; that is, regardless of whether women are married or not, the higher the level of education, the greater the chances of becoming part of the market, so that the difference between women with children and women without children is not significant if it is fulfilled with the measures previously named. On the other hand, those women who are single, widowed and young are likely to be hired with greater time availability, which drives a representative job offer compared to their opposite gender (Amador, Bernal and Peña, 2013).

Similarly, as mentioned earlier, another of the most significant dilemmas faced by Colombian women who are part of the national labor force is the wage gap existing in the labor market sectors, which Sabogal (2012) relates to the situation by which countries arise in different economic cycles; that is, this gap is pro-cyclical, decreases in recessions and increases in booms. Likewise, the inequality that is generated in occupations is determined by gender discrimination on the part of the employer towards the offeror. Likewise, those women affected by such discrimination are prone to work in low productivity jobs, where their The remunerations will be lower than those of men, which, on the contrary, are established in the sectors that represent the greatest utility to the country's Gross Domestic Product (GDP).

The present study was carried under a descriptive approach. The selection of these parameters is due to the fact that it allows to know with greater precision, the phenomenon around female segregation in the Colombian labor market. In first instance, the perspective selected offers the possibility of approaching the topic under study in a dynamic way, since, as the investigative process develops, it is possible to change and alternate the procedures that were taken into account at the beginning (Galeano, 2003). In addition, this approach uses in some cases the use of statistics, because it is a useful tool that facilitates the analysis of results; for this particular case, the data was taken from the Grand Integrated Household Survey (GEIH) for the first mobile quarter of 2017.

On the other hand, since it is a descriptive investigation, the characteristics that influence the participation, specifically, of women in the five main sectors of the Colombian economy, are exposed; according to its weight in the Gross Domestic Product (GDP); The analysis takes into account the female population occupied between the years 2001 to 2016. Therefore, it is constituted in a longitudinal study, which evaluates the conditions to which females have been exposed in the sectors established in a certain time range. In turn, the descriptive study provides the pertinent information, so that in the future, correlational and explanatory studies could be carried out in the same line of research (Hernández, Fernández and Baptista, 2010).

4.1. Financial Intermediation Sector

As shown in Figure 1, at the beginning of this century, the Colombian economy was going through a period of deceleration due to the economic opening, which took place at the beginning of the 1990s; in which the national industry was seriously affected causing the decline of domestic savings. In this sense, the approach taken by Sabogal (2012), which mentions that segregation by gender is pro-cyclical, that is to say, that discrimination between men and women tends to excel even more in the recessive economic cycles, is retaken. In this order of ideas, the wage gap and the degree of insertion into the labor market, begins to decline in the boom times, as was found after 2010, particularly in the financial sector.

Figure 1
Participation by sex in the financial intermediation sector (2001 -2016)

Source: GEIH - DANE own preparation with statistical package R.

In this case, even though women have been seriously affected by the discrimination they have suffered in different spheres, as a consequence of certain cultural prejudices, this has been the main reason why women in Colombia have chosen to choose work activities that are immersed in the tertiary sector of the economy; within which the financial sector has managed to stand out for its constant evolution, the increase of its participation in GDP and social promotion based on the level of comprehensive training it provides to its workers. Likewise, from 2014 within the national development plan, it was stipulated as an obligation of both private and public entities to comply with those legal parameters that are in favor of gender equality, in which Article 13 and 43 of the Political Constitution of Colombia are aligned with that purpose (Constitución Política de Colombia, 1991).

In line with this, it is possible to ratify by means of the (Figure 1), that the financial sector conformed by: credit institutions, cooperatives, savings and loan units have been the precursors of the fulfillment of the legal estates mentioned above; in addition, to be characterized by providing timely and efficient support to employees, offering the necessary assistance so that they can meet professional requirements, which allow them to rise positions and contribute to the sustainable development of these entities.

4.2. Trade, repair, restaurants and hotels sector

As mentioned in the previous section, as in the financial sector, the commerce, repair, restaurants and hotels sector has increased its share of GDP. According to a press release issued in August 2017 by the National Administrative Department of Statistics (DANE), this sector presented a positive variation of 0.9% in the second quarter of 2016 to the second quarter of the following year. According to this and as shown in Figure 2, female participation in this branch of activity showed a significant increase from concentrating two million six hundred and seventy-three thousand women in 2010 to three million three hundred and forty-four thousand for the closing of 2016. (DANE, 2017) In accordance with this, it is important to highlight that thanks to the skills that characterize women when establishing exchange links through dialogue, their incidence in retail trade predominates in commercial establishments where food, jewelry, textiles, footwear and accessories are sold.

Nevertheless, in spite of the value that this increase represents in socioeconomic matters, the men who work in this sector are linked, mostly, in the wholesale trade; in which it is possible that they receive higher income and, therefore, that they enjoy a higher quality of life. By virtue of this, it is worth mentioning that for the Colombian case 2.1 million workers are employed informally in the commercial sector (DANE, 2017).

Likewise, it is very important to emphasize that the demand for work in this branch of activity is not so susceptible to a low level of education. Therefore, those women who must distribute their time between housework and work, tend to perform in this type of work for the facilities offered when accessing part-time jobs; in addition, the agile insertion to this type of activities.

 Figure 2
Participation by sex in the Commerce, repair,
restaurants and hotels sector (2001-2016)

Source: GEIH - DANE own preparation with statistical package R.

4.3. Transport of storage and communication sector

The way in which it can be corroborated in (Figure 3) there is a marked segregation by gender, in the sector of transport of storage and communications. The reason why such discrimination is so pronounced is due to the different types of violence in the workplace. Among the established typification are: external violence, referring to the negative behaviors caused by agents external to the workplace (vandalism, theft, sabotage and terrorism); internal violence, related to violent episodes on the part of individuals who have authority in the employment relationship (intimidation and harassment) and violence related to services, manifestations of aggression expressed by consumers or customers who demand services (Turnbull, Lear and Thomas, 2013).

In relation to this, it can be established that violent practices have represented an obstacle for women to aspire to different jobs, within this sector of the national economy. In this sense, there are different stereotypes that from the beginning marginalize the activities that they can play, such as: attraction, in which young women do not perceive it as an employment option to be part of this branch of activity, as a result of the parameters inculcated from the educational entities; the selection, related to the average degree of linkage present in the administrative areas and a low degree in the operational areas and retention, regarding the stability and the follow-up provided by the employers to the employees, which is usually negligent and does not provide greater guarantees. Delimiting, in this way, the capacity of promotion within the working environment.

Figure 3
Participation by sex in the transport of storage
and communications sector (2001 -2016)

Source: GEIH - DANE own preparation with statistical package R.

In addition, it is worth to highlight that the activities linked to this sector not only involve land transport but also transport by air and water transport; whether they are private or public. Particularly, in the Colombian case, the manifestations of violence mentioned above have persisted over time and have been established as the main cause of the present discrimination. A clear example of this are the participation rates in the sector, in which by 2001 men represented 89.09% and women 10.90% currently, although it is recognized that the participation of the latter has increased, the increase has not been significant at the end of 2016, where men constituted 85.58% of the relationship and women only 14.42% (DANE, 2017).

4.4. Construction Sector

Given the need to promote economic growth, through the sectors that represent a greater participation in the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of each country; the construction sector is one of the catalysts of this purpose, given the generation of employment that is caused by an intense demand for labor, which leads to the urban development of the different territorial entities. It is worth highlighting that even when one of the purposes of the sector is to link the most vulnerable populations, as in the case of women, this objective is not fully met, as shown in Figure 4.

Figure 4
Participation by sex in the Construction sector (2001-2016)

Source: GEIH - DANE own preparation with statistical package R.

According to this, and based on the results presented during the Closing of the 2014 Concrete Meeting held in Cartagena (CAMACOL, 2014), the need to increase female participation in the construction sector worldwide was manifested, since this turns out to be 11% and in which only 4.3% of women hold senior positions. In the Colombian context, given the expansion of this sector in recent years, there has also been an increase in the hiring of women in it. Therefore, it is essential to plan development plans at the municipal, departmental and national levels that take labor inclusion into account.

On the other hand, it is essential to mention that the promotion of some social projects such as: My House and others within the framework of the National Educational Infrastructure Plan that contemplates the current development plan (Peace, Equity and Education) have represented an outstanding opportunity to increase the demand for labor, whether qualified or not, which benefits both men and women. However, the positions held by the female representatives are concentrated in the administrative and financial areas, but not in the operational or technical areas; This may be due to the biological connotation that characterizes each sex and that, in some way or another, limits the forced physical activity that women can perform (Serna, 2013).

4.5. Electricity, Gas and Water Supply Sector

As in the Construction sector, female participation in the Electricity, Gas and Water Supply sector is represented by a minority. According to a report by the Inter-American Development Bank (IDB), only 19.7% of workers in this sector in Latin America and the Caribbean are women, of whom only 9% hold executive positions. However, it should be mentioned that the inclusion of women in the labor force of companies belonging to this branch of activity can generate a return on investment of close to 15%, since the assets in the case of electricity companies are usually of a high cost and these gains can mean significant benefits. (Snyder and Bersano, 2017).

For the Colombian case, as observed in (Figure 5) throughout the period under study, labor segregation by gender has been insistent. Nevertheless, after 2007 the hiring of workers in this sector increased, from the construction of new projects aimed at the generation of energy through hydroelectric plants, as in the case   of Hidrosogamoso and the Ituango hydroelectric power station; in which a high participation of both men and women is demanded (Cortes, Atanache and Acosta, 2014). Likewise, it is important to point out that in this type of projects, a large part of the labor required is not qualified, therefore, the designated tasks are focused on the provision of services.

Figure 5
Participation by sex in the Electricity Gas and Water sector (2001-2016)

Source: GEIH - DANE own preparation with statistical package R.

On the other hand, companies such as Terpel and ISAGEN have been pioneers at the national level in terms of recognizing the problems in which women are immersed when it comes to accessing positions within the sector; likewise, they have been in charge of promoting internal policies and strategies, in order to increase their links within their corporations. In the case of the first, Sylvia Escobar, president of the organization in Colombia, has expressed the need to involve more women in the different management positions (Terpel, 2015). In the case of ISAGEN, it is recognized that it is essential to continue working on the purpose of achieving gender equity, since even for 2016, a discrepancy persisted in labor participation and wages received between men and women; where for the position of manager, men win $ 46,362,700 and women $ 36,372,500 and, in the case of professionals, men receive $ 6,428,530 and women $ 5,843,822 (ISAGEN, 2016).

Finally, regarding the water supply, the little documentation referring to the subject for the national case must be highlighted. However, according to a World Bank report (2007), the participation of women in this activity is considered valuable, given that they tend to be more aware of the problems and needs expressed by the population where they live; in addition, of being more prone to suffer the phenomenon of scarcity because they are more linked to household chores. Consequently, it is essential to emphasize that "the absence of women is a loss of talent, ideas and innovation where they are most needed. The diversity of thought is key to navigate that reality and turn the challenge into an opportunity " (Snyder and Bersano, 2017).

Finally, it is possible to conclude that the labor insertion of women depends, to a large extent, on the economic cycle that the country is going through. Likewise, this insertion also goes hand in hand with the participation represented by the branches of economic activity of the tertiary sector in the GDP conglomerate; where there is a greater concentration of women in it. Currently, it is worth mentioning that the feminization of education is manifesting itself in the Colombian case. Reason why, the women with the course of the time have increased their academic formation; even though the level of training among females has increased, wage gaps still persist, especially accentuated in those sectors affected by informality.

Moreover, the discrimination and the types of violence that women face in different labor positions, delay the demand for female labor in the market under study; regardless of the low or high salary remuneration that is perceived. Likewise, the legal statuses and the internal business policies, despite the fundamental role they should play, are not really taken into account in the recruitment processes at the national level, since segregation by gender in the labor market has transcended the economic sphere, to the political, social and cultural spheres; perpetuating poverty and limiting the sustainable development that Colombia could achieve.

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1. Licenciada en Matemáticas, Universidad Industrial de Santander (UIS). Magister en Estadística, Universidad de los Andes (ULA). Profesora a tiempo completo. Departamento de Matemáticas y Ciencias Naturales, Universidad Autónoma de Bucaramanga. Correo electrónico: efajardo@unab.edu.co

2. Economista, Universidad de los Andes (ULA). Master en Finanzas, Instituto de Estudios Superiores de Administración (IESA). Master en Administración, Instituto de Estudios Superiores de Administración (IESA). Profesor Interno de la Facultad de Administración de Empresas. Universidad Pontificia Bolivariana (UPB). Correo electrónico: hector.romero@upb.edu.co

3. Estudiante de Economía. Universidad Santo Tomás, Seccional Bucaramanga. Correo electrónico: maria.alvarez05@ustabuca.edu.co

4. Estudiante de Economía. Universidad Santo Tomás, Seccional Bucaramanga. Correo electrónico: johana.vargas@ustabuca.edu.co