ISSN 0798 1015

Especial • Vol. 38 (Nº 56) Year 2017. Page 12

Individual psychological characteristics of schoolchildren and college students with different types of attitude to bribery

Características psicológicas individuales de los escolares y estudiantes universitarios con diferentes tipos de actitud al soborno

Svetlana Tigranovna DZHANERYAN 1; Vladimir Aleksandrovich KIRIK 2; Darya Ivanovna GVOZDEVA 3; Ekaterina Aleksandrovna PANINA 4

Recibido: 26/10/2017 • Aprobado: 25/11/2017

Contents

1. Introduction

2. Methods

3. Results and discussion

4. Results

5. Conclusion

Acknowledgements

References

1. Introduction

Being a key problem of modern Russian society, the problem of corruption attracts attention of experts in the field of law, economics, history, and sociology to the analysis of the historical conditions of its emergence, the definitions, the typology criteria, the socio-economic determinants and the methods of prevention. Recognizing the immensity of bribery as the type of corruption, the researchers unanimously note the tolerant attitude of the population towards it. Bribery is interpreted as "the corruptive situation when there is a voluntary offer, a promise, a giving, a receiving, an agreement to take some money to influence the actions of an official for one's own benefit" (Golubovsky & Sinyukova 2015, p. 243). According to the Criminal Code (CC) of the Russian Federation (RF) (Articles 290, 291), the bribery results in the receipt by the bribe-taker (the official being bribed), the giving by the briber (the bribing person) with the possible participation of an intermediary, of the bribe. The bribe is the material assets (things, money, services, other property benefits) accepted by the official for the action or inaction in the interests of the briber, which this person could or should have committed due to his official position (Atagimova, 2015; Art. 290 of the CC of the RF).

The bribery is universally represented in such a form of corruption as grass-roots (individual) corruption, which includes the "corruptive actions committed, as a rule, by the officials occupying the lowest and the middle level in the hierarchy of the Civil Service" (Golubovsky & Sinyukova 2015, p. 242).

This kind of corruption is directly connected with the shadow economy, regarded from the point of view of its participants as mutually beneficial; it is most characteristic for modern Russia and covers the daily life of the population (especially in the areas of traffic safety, health care and education), it reveals a tendency to growth and acquires exotic (labor and sexual services) and veiled forms (fees for tutoring, purchase of teaching aids, gifts to teachers) (Belousov 2015; Shirin 2015; Rotondi & Stanca 2015).

Recently, a tendency towards the active use of the psychological knowledge in the study of bribery has emerged, which is expressed in the application of the conceptual apparatus of the psychology of relations to the description and analysis of this phenomenon (Reshetnikov 2008; Vannovskaya 2009; Vasyakin, Deberdeeva, & Pozharskaya, 2016). Within the framework of development of this tendency, the authors consider the attitude to bribery as a semantic or consistent purpose-means psychological attitude in the mind of a subject, in which a bribe occupies a place of a purpose or a means in the implementation of particular needs and values (Dzhaneryan 2010).

Modern psychological research in the field of attitude to bribery due to the delicate nature of the subject of study take the shape of stating reviews, mainly; the results indicate the ambiguity and inconsistency of the attitude under study, the concentration of the research efforts on the emotional-evaluative component of the attitude is noted, which limits the possibilities of the category of the attitude for its full-fledged use in the description of the phenomenon under study. In our opinion, the content of such an attitude should be considered in the unity of the content of each of its components: cognitive (interpretation and functions of the bribe), emotionally evaluative (the feelings of the respondents about bribery, evaluation of the influence of the bribe on the subjects of different scales, the preventive measures), conative (the reasons and the psychological characteristics of the briber and the bribe-taker in the notion of the subject) (Dzhaneryan, Gvozdeva & Astafyeva 2016).

The modern research interest in the study of the attitude to bribery is aimed at the analysis of the attitude of the young people. According to the results of the study, being a well-known phenomenon for young people, the bribery is a conscious means for meeting different needs (Kuznetsova 2015), not supported by any moral assessments, for the majority of them (especially for the wealthy ones). Following these ideas, young people can implement this problem-solving technique in the career-professional sphere and in life in general. If we really want to create an intolerant attitude to this phenomenon, the monitoring of the attitude to bribery should be performed not only among students but also among young people studying at schools and colleges. At the same time, psychology and pedagogy require the knowledge about the specifics of the psychological characteristics of young people demonstrating this or that relation to bribery. The programs for anticorruption education of the youth, considered in the scientific papers, cover different educational stages, from primary school to the university education (Fomenko 2015; Ninik 2015; Nurulpaik & Triatna 2016; Komalasari & Saripudin 2015; Harris & Bastedo 2011), while the researchers are focused on the university stage of education only.

Psychological attitudes, referred to the developed type of psychic attitudes, represent an integral system of individual, selective, conscious relations of the individual with various aspects of reality, resulting from the entire history of human development, expressing his/her personal experience, internally defining his/her actions and experiences. Being conscious, arbitrary, integral, individualized and conative, they are associated with the personal meaning, are specified in the interests, assessments, beliefs, conscious motivations of people. Being personal, the attitudes are related to the personal proprieties of a person, and the latter are not only an expression of the way of implementation of the attitudes, but also manifest themselves in the presence of specific attitude (Myasishchev 1995).

The interpretation of semantic attitudes to bribery; the representations of the structure of the attitudes and their relationship to the psychological characteristics of the subjects developed by us; the ambiguous data on the specifics of the attitude of, mainly, the student youth, to bribery, available in the scientific papers; and the insufficient knowledge of the psychological characteristics of the subjects of the attitude towards bribery, constitute the prerequisites for special study of the psychological characteristics of students with different types of this attitude.

The purpose and the object of the study. The conducted empirical research is aimed at studying the individual psychological characteristics of schoolchildren and college students demonstrating various types of attitude to bribery. The subject of the study is the psychological characteristics of schoolchildren and college students with different types of attitude to bribery. The object of the study is the attitudes of schoolchildren and college students toward bribery (236 respondents in Rostov-on-Don aged 15 to 18).

2. Methods

The following methods were used in the study: the survey (the author's questionnaire making it possible to evaluate the content of each component of the attitude to bribery), the content analysis of the open questions contained in the questionnaire, testing ("The level of correlation between the "value" and the "accessibility" in various life spheres" (E.B. Fantalova); "Personality Differential" (PD), the scale "moral normativity" of the Multilevel Personality Questionnaire "Adaptivity" (MPQ-AM) of A.G. Maklakov and S.V. Chermyanin, the social frustration questionnaire of L.I. Wasserman, B.V. Iovlev, and M.A. Beribin, the method of diagnosis of the social psychological adaptation (SPA) developed by K. Rogers, and R. Diamond, the scale of differential emotions of K. Izard); the statistical methods (the factor analysis by the principal component method, the multiple linear regression (R, p < 0.01), Shapiro-Wilk, Wilcoxon, Friedman criteria (p < 0.05)).

The selection of methods, carried out in accordance with the purpose of this study, makes it possible to establish the content of cognitive (definition and function of the bribe); conative (the reasons for giving and taking the bribes), emotionally evaluative (the feelings of the respondents about bribery, the evaluation of the influence of the bribe on the state, social groups of the subject; the preventive measures) components of the attitude (Tables 1-3).

The individual and psychological characteristics of the respondents include the significant and accessible values, personal traits, social frustration (high rates of satisfaction of a person with the achievements and position in socially defined spheres of life correspond to a pronounced social frustration); the self-assessment according to the PD test factors (factor O – self-esteem, factor C – self-confidence, factor A – extroversion); the fundamental emotions. The analysis of the values is carried out from the standpoint of the value types predominating in personal development as the processes of adaptation (Financially Secure Life, Health), socialization (Work, Happy Family Life, Friends, Love), individualization (Active Life, Freedom, Confidence, Cognition, Creativity) (Yanitsky 2012). The leading psychological characteristics of the respondents, demonstrating this or that type of attitude, are determined by means of the multiple linear regression analysis as a measure of their directed influence on the individual factor assessment for each respondent, a subject of one or another type of attitude to bribery. According to the results of the study, it is established that the age of the respondents is not related to any specific characteristics of the components of this or that type of attitude to bribery.

The answers of the respondents to the open questions of the questionnaire were analyzed with the help of the content analysis. The results of the pilot coding of the responses of the respondents, and the expert evaluation (5 expert psychologists) of the adequacy of the choice of category indicators with the subsequent determination of the measure of consistency of this assessment made it possible to single out the categories (the relative frequency of their occurrence) reflecting the content of each of the components of the attitude. The content-meaning interpretation of the bribe includes: the type of business commercial transaction ("the issuance of funds for the provision of any services", etc.); the type of unlawful action (the "crime", "allows circumventing the law", etc.); the universal means (necessary and desirable) of meeting the individual needs of the subjects ("a simple way out of the situation", the "satisfaction of human needs"); a kind of immoral conduct ("this is bad", "unfair business").

The functions of bribery include the elimination as the elimination of the possibility of administrative and criminal liability ("avoidance of punishment"), the resource function as saving time and personal resources ("to get something faster, out of turn", "to save energy"); the total-instrumental function of the bribe in everyday problem solving (excluding the fields of career and legal relations) ("means of meeting any need"). Separately, the instrumental function of bribery in solving career issues and also its destructive function ("destroys people's lives") are singled out.

The forced nature of bribery ("people are forced to bribe"); the unlawful act ("to bypass the law", "to allow the violation"); the professional-career factors ("to get a job"); the personal characteristics of the subjects ("stupidity", "laziness"); the specific coping strategies aimed at time management and saving of the personal resources ("desire to speed up the process", "unwillingness to expend energy"); interpersonal relations ("to get on someone's good side", "to establish the contacts") are attributed to the factors of bribe-giving.

The unlawful act; the professional-career factors; the personal characteristics of the subjects ("greediness, avidity"), material factors ("the desire to get money easily") are attributed to the factors of bribe-taking.

The general, the special and the single consequences of bribery are considered as the effects of its influence on the state, social groups, and a particular person. According to the respondents, the consequences for the state affect the economy ("losses"), the activities of the authorities ("the decline in the efficiency of the state apparatus"), and the ideology ("ideology worsens").

The consequences of bribery for the social groups are considered as a reduction in professionalism ("non-professionalism"), the destruction of interpersonal relationships ("a conflict may occur") and as a statement of negative and positive assessments. A special group includes negative and positive assessments of the consequences of a bribe as well as the statements "I find it difficult to answer", by which the respondents characterize the effects of its influence on the state, social groups and personality. The number of the last mentioned answers was significant in the sample of respondents under study.

The respondents attribute the criminal punishment, the administrative control, the wage increase and the upbringing to the preventive measures. The answers that deny the possibility of eradication of bribery are also taken into account, as well as the "I do not know" answers.

3. Results and discussion

As a result of the factor analysis of the factors indicating the definitions and functions of a bribe, the 3-factor solution was obtained, explaining 99.9% of the variance (Table 1). The subsequent analysis of the bribery definitions leading by the estimates of the respondents, which received high weights in each factor (> 0.6), made it possible to identify the types of respondents' semantic attitude to a bribe: 1. The unlawful act; 2. The type of business commercial transaction; 3. The immoral conduct. The content of bribery interpretations, given by the respondents, serves as the empirical criterion for the establishment of the types of attitude to bribery.

 Table 1
Content and values of the factor weights of the bribe interpretations by the respondents

3.1. Main part

The respondents are sufficiently aware of the practice of bribery. The number of respondents, more than in 50% of cases convinced of the bribe in the career-professional sphere, is 70.5%; in the sphere of education – 69.5%; in the sphere of public life – 43.8%; in the field of hobbies – 19%; in the family sphere – 9.5%. However, this awareness is very general, which is confirmed by the equation by the respondents of the interpretations and functions of bribery, the difficulties in identifying the factors and the negative effects of bribery, and the inclination of the respondents toward polar emotional assessments (good or bad) of this phenomenon. In general, the fact of bribery arouses disgust among the respondents; their negative assessments of the consequences of bribery for the state, social groups and a particular person dominate. Along with this, the respondents note the positive effects of a bribe for a specific person, giving it the general functional purpose of a total instrument in everyday problem solving. 15.6% of respondents find it difficult to identify the preventive measures, and 8% deny the very possibility of eradication of bribery.

According to these results, the attitude to a bribe differs, but its total instrumental function is the leading function. Despite the unlawfulness and immorality of bribery, declared by the respondents, in their opinion, it is positive for a particular person. Functionally, the attitude to bribery is utilitarian, in which the bribe is conceived as a universal means for the implementation of the needs. Some studies (Vasyakin, Deberdeeva & Pozharskaya 2016; Dzhaneryan, Gvozdeva & Astafyeva 2016; Kuznetsova 2015) showed the lack of moral and ethical assessments of bribery against the background of awareness of its unlawful nature in students. The results of this study confirm the existence of moral and ethical assessments of bribery (only in the form of negative emotional evaluations) in the schoolchildren and college students while recognizing its "usefulness" in solving various problems of a particular person.

The types of attitude to bribery defined by us are differentiated according to the content of each of the components of the attitude and depending on the status of the respondents.

In the first type of attitude (46.3% of respondents), the bribery is interpreted as the unlawful act, the function of a bribe is interpreted as totally instrumental. However, the college students, unlike the schoolchildren, attribute a resource function to a bribe also.  

Table 2
Functions of a bribe and factors of bribery in the
notion of schoolchildren and college students

*Notes: type 1 – Unlawful act; type 2 – Business commercial transaction; type 3 – Immoral conduct.

According to the results, given in Table 2, the content of the notions of schoolchildren and college students of the bribe-taking factors coincide, but their notions of bribe-giving vary. The bribe-giving, in the opinion of both groups of respondents, is based on the unlawful acts and the strategy of the bribers, but the college students add professional-career factors to this.

The bribe situation causes the respondents to experience the feelings of interest, astonishment, disgust, contempt (Table 3). The respondents note the negative consequences of bribery for the state and for the social groups. The assessments of these effects are more specific for college students than for schoolchildren. The consequences of bribery for a particular person are considered ambiguous, but the distributions of the evaluations of the negative and positive impact of bribery on a particular person do not significantly differ in schoolchildren and college students (other types of attitude bear the similar nature of distribution of these estimates). The respondents attribute the administrative control and toughening of criminal punishment to the measures of a preventive nature, at the same time the schoolchildren declare their own ignorance on this issue.

The intensity of the schoolchildren's attitude under study is affected (R = 0.732) positively by the availability of the "love" value (+0.374), the strength factor (+0.289), and negatively by the non-acceptance of others (-0.378). Consequently, the expressed accessibility of the value of socialization ("love") and self-confidence, while the expressed non-acceptance of others weakens this attitude, are the personal determinants that support and strengthen the attitude towards bribery among the schoolchildren.

The intensity of this type of attitude in the college students is affected positively (R = 0.689) by the differences between the significance and the availability of the "work" value (+0.275) and negatively by the significance of the "material security" value (-0.47), dominance (-0.283) and self-acceptance (-0.217). Consequently, the personal determinant that supports and strengthens this type of attitude to bribery, is the inaccessibility of the "work" value for the college students, while the low intensity of the "material security" value, low domination and low self-acceptance weaken this attitude. Taking into account the values of the variables that affect this type of attitude, it can be concluded that the schoolchildren and the college students treat the bribery as an unlawful act and this attitude is strengthened primarily under the influence of the socialization values, for the schoolchildren they are the availability of the "love" value, while for the college students they are the inaccessibility of the "work" value (Table 4).

In the second type of attitude (33.1% of respondents), bribery is treated as a business commercial transaction. The schoolchildren consider the functions of a bribe to be totally instrumental, while the college students consider the functions of a bribe to be totally instrumental and resource. The schoolchildren attribute the unlawful acts and the strategies of the briber to the factors of bribe-giving, while the college students attribute the unlawful acts, the strategies, the interpersonal relations and the professional-career to the factors (Table 2). The content of the factors of bribery does not differ in schoolchildren and in college students. The bribe situation causes respondents to have similar in modality experiences: astonishment, anger, disgust, and contempt (Table 3). However, these experiences are supplemented by the schoolchildren with joy, fear and guilt, while the college students supplement them with interest. The content of the influence of the bribe for the state, group and individual in schoolchildren and college students does not differ, except for the more pronounced ignorance of schoolchildren, demonstrated by them in connection with the assessment of the consequences of bribery for the state and the group. The college students attribute the toughening of criminal punishment to the measures of a preventive nature, while the schoolchildren declare their own ignorance on this issue.

The intensity of this type of the attitude of the schoolchildren is affected (R = 0.866) positively by the indicators of fear (+0.584), moral normativity (+0.499), frustration with the emotional state (+0.398) and negatively by the difference between the significance and accessibility of the "creativity" value (-0.616)). Therefore, the personal determinants that support and strengthen this type of attitude to bribery of the schoolchildren are the expression of fear, moral normativity and frustration with their own emotional state, while the inaccessibility of the "creativity" value weakens this type of attitude. 

Table 3
Content of the emotional and evaluative component of the attitude to bribery

*Notes: type 1 – Unlawful act; type 2 – Business commercial transaction; type 3 – Immoral conduct.

The intensity of this type of attitude in college students is influenced positively by the indicators of the significance of the values "confidence" (0.188), "freedom" (+0.83), "cognition" (0.649) and negatively by the indicator of satisfaction with leisure (-0.439) (Table 4). Therefore, the significance of the individualization values ("confidence", "freedom", "cognition") serve as the personal determinants supporting and strengthening this type of attitude to bribery in college students, while high satisfaction with the sphere of leisure weakens this type of attitude. Taking into account the values of the variables that affect this type of attitude, it can be concluded that the attitude of schoolchildren toward bribery as the unlawful act is supported primarily by fear, while in college students it is supported by the "freedom" value of individualization. 

Table 4
Leading personal characteristics of the respondents
with different types of attitude to bribery

 In the third type of attitude (20.6% of respondents), bribery is treated as the immoral conduct, but the college students, unlike the schoolchildren, define it as both the illegal act and the universal means of achievement of the purpose. According to the students, the bribe performs the totally instrumental function, and in the opinion of the college students, it performs the totally instrumental, professional-career and destructive functions.

Respondents attribute the unlawful acts and the strategies of the briber to the bribery factors, but the college students, in contrast to the schoolchildren, include the professional-career factors in the same groups of factors. The content of the bribery factors does not differ in schoolchildren and college students and is limited to the idea of the material motivation of the bribe-taker (Table 2).

The bribe situation causes the emotional feelings of anger, disgust, contempt, distress in schoolchildren and the feelings of interest, disgust, astonishment in college students (Table 3). The estimates of the consequences of a bribe vary considerably. The schoolchildren confine themselves to stating their own ignorance (with the exception of assessment of the influence of bribery on the state, which is assessed as the "negative influence" by them). The estimates given by the college students are more differentiated: along with the statement of ignorance and "negative-positive" assessments, the college students assess the ideological and economic effects of bribery on the state. The college students attribute the administrative control, the toughening of the criminal punishment, the increase of wages to the measures of preventive nature; the schoolchildren declare their own ignorance on this issue.

The intensity of the attitude of schoolchildren is affected positively (R = 0.961) by the value of integral self-acceptance (+0.406), the importance of the "family" value (+2.355), the "valuation" factor (+0.376), guilt (+1.272) and negatively by the "health" (-1.306) and integral internality (-0.643) values. Consequently, the personal determinants that support and strengthen the attitude towards bribery in schoolchildren are the expression of their integral self-acceptance, self-esteem, the "family" socialization value, guilt, while the low significance of the "health" adaptation value and low integral internality weaken this type of attitude.

The intensity of this attitude on college students is positively affected by the anger indicators (+0.595) and the satisfaction with relations with the classmates (+0.502) and negatively by the significance of the "material security" adaptation value (-0.112). Consequently, the personal determinants that support and strengthen this type of attitude toward bribery in college students are the frustration expressed by their relations in the training group and anger, while the low significance of the "material security" adaptation value weakens this type of attitude (Table 4).

Taking into account the values of the variables that affect this type of attitude, it can be concluded that the attitude of the schoolchildren toward bribery as the immoral conduct is strengthened, primarily due to the expressed "family" socialization value, and the attitude of the college students is strengthened due to the emotion of anger.

4. Results

The respondents are quite well informed about the practice of bribery in various fields of life, especially, in career-professional and educational spheres. Among the types of attitude toward bribery defined in schoolchildren and in college students, the attitude towards bribery as the unlawful act is leading; the least represented is the attitude towards bribery as the immoral conduct. One third of the respondents show the attitude to bribery as the business economy transaction.

The type of attitude, as well as the social status of the respondents, influences the characteristics of the content of each component of the corresponding attitude. The results of the study testify to the greater completeness of each of the types of attitude toward bribery in college students, rather than in schoolchildren. In each type of attitude of college students, in contrast to schoolchildren, there is a greater development of the content of the cognitive, emotional-evaluative and conative components of the corresponding attitude, which is reflected in the content of their notions of the functions, factors, influence of bribery on the state and on the certain social groups.

The type of attitude towards bribery in schoolchildren and college students is determined by their psychological characteristics. In the case of the attitude towards bribery as the unlawful act (the first type of attitude), the leading personal characteristics of the respondents supporting this type of attitude are different in the content of the socialization value. In the case of the attitude towards bribery as the business economic transaction (the second type of attitude), the leading personal characteristics, supporting this type of attitude, are fear in schoolchildren, and the individualization value ("freedom") in college students. In the case of attitude towards bribery as the immoral conduct (the third type of attitude), the leading personal characteristics, supporting this type of attitude, are the socialization value ("family") in schoolchildren, and anger in college students. It is advisable to emphasize the consistent nature of the values and the situational nature of the emotional experiences, which are the leading psychological characteristics of schoolchildren and college students that implement this or that type of attitude to bribery. The specificity of the established psychological characteristics of the young people should be taken into account when developing and implementing the anticorruption education programs for out-of-school youth.

5. Conclusion

The types of semantic attitude to bribery are established empirically based on the assessments given by the schoolchildren and the college students; the psychological characteristics of the schoolchildren and the college students, causing the implementation of this or that type of attitude to bribery as the form of grassroots corruption, are revealed.

Acknowledgements

The reported study was funded by RFBR (Russian Foundation for Basic Research) according to the research project No. 17-36-00041.

Conflict Of Interest

The authors confirm that the data represented herein do not contain any conflict of interest.

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1. Southern Federal University, 105/42 Bolshaya Sadovaya St., Rostov-on-don, 344006, Russia

2. Southern Federal University, 105/42 Bolshaya Sadovaya St., Rostov-on-don, 344006, Russia

3. Southern Federal University, 105/42 Bolshaya Sadovaya St., Rostov-on-don, 344006, Russia

4. Southern Federal University, 105/42 Bolshaya Sadovaya St., Rostov-on-don, 344006, Russia